Nymphalidae

Members of this family are generally brush-footed butterflies, this refers to the reduced pair of the first legs or forelegs that are covered in dense hairs. The front pair of legs is inconspicuous and much smaller that the other four. They are not used for walking or holding but for cleaning their antennae and other parts of their body. Butterflies in this family have a distinctive way of flying, after every wingbeat, they hold their wings stretched out from their body and glide for a while without moving their wings.

Apaturinae

Eulaceura osteria kumana
(Purple Duke)

Charaxinae

Charaxes solon echo
(Black Rajah)

Polyura hebe plautus
(Plain Nawab)

Danaus chrysippus chrysippus
(Plain Tiger)

Danaus genutia genutia
(Common Tiger)

Danaus melanippus hegesippus
(Black Veined Tiger)

Euploea camaralzeman malayica
(Malayan Crow)

Euploea crameri bremeri
(Spotted Black Crow)

Euploea eyndhovii gardineri
(Striped Black Crow)

Euploea midamus singapura
(Blue Spotted Crow)

Euploea mulciber mulciber
(Striped Blue Crow)

Euploea phaenareta castelnaui
(King Crow)

Euploea radamanthus radamanthus

(Magpie Crow)

Euploea tulliolus ledereri
(Dwarf Crow)

Idea leuconoe chersonesia
(Mangrove Tree Nymph)

Idea stolli logani
(Common Tree Nymph)

Ideopsis vulgaris macrina
(Blue Glassy Tiger)

Parantica agleoides agleoides
(Dark Glassy Tiger)

Acraea violae
(Tawny Coster)

Cethosia cyane

(Leopard Lacewing)

Cethosia hypsea hypsina
(Malay Lacewing)

Cethosia penthesilea methypsea
(Plain Lacewing)

Cirrochroa orissa orissa
(Banded Yeoman)

Cupha erymanthis lotis
(Rustic)

Phalanta phalantha phalantha
(Leopard)

Terinos terpander robertsia
(Royal Assyrian)

Vidula dejone erotella
(Cruiser)

Limenitidinae

Doleschallia bisaltide ?bisalitide var.
(Autumn Leaf)

Doleschallia bisaltide pratipa
(Autumn Leaf)

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Hypolimnas anomala anomala
(Malayan Eggfly)

Hypolimnas bolina bolina
(Great Eggfly)

Hypolimnas bolina jacintha
(Jacintha Eggfly)

Hypolimnas misippus misippus
(Danaid Eggfly)

Junonia almana javana
(Peacock Pansy)

Junonia atlites atlites
(Grey Pansy)

Junonia hedonia ida
(Chocolate Pansy)

Junonia orithya wallacei
(Blue Pansy)

Vanessa cardui
(Painted Lady)

Vanessa indica indica
(Indian Red Admiral)
Satyrinae

Papilionidae

Members of this family are generally large striking fliers. They are also the largest butterflies in the world. Although commonly known as Swallowtail Family, some of the species are tailless.

Papilioninae

Chilasa clytia clytia

(Common Mime)

Graphium agamemnon agamemnon

(Tailed Jay)

Graphium doson evemonides(Common Jay)

Graphium evemon eventus

(Blue Jay)

Graphium sarpedon luctatius
(Common Bluebottle)

Pachliopta aristolochiae asteris

(Common Rose)

Papilio demoleus malayanus

(Lime Butterfly)

Papilio demolion demolion

(Banded Swallowtail)

Papilio iswara iswara

(Great Helen)

Papilio memnon agenor
(Great Mormon)

Papilio polytes romulus
(Common Mormon)

Papilio prexaspes prexaspes

(Blue Helen)

Pathysa antiphates itamputi

(Five Bar Swordtail)

Troides amphyrysus ruficollis

(Malayan Birdwing)

Troides helena cerberus

(Common Birdwing)

Papilionidae
Papilioninae: Troidini
Southern or Western Ghats Birdwing    Troides minos (Endemic)
Malabar Rose    Pachliopta pandiyana (Endemic)
Common Rose    Pachliopta aristolochiae
Crimson Rose    Pachliopta hector
Papilioninae: Leptocirini
Common Blue bottle    Graphium sarpedon
Common Jay    Graphium doson
Tailed Jay    Graphium agamemnon
Spot Swordtail    Graphium nomius
Five bar swordtail    Graphium antiphates
Papilioninae: Pailionini
Common Mime    Papilio clytia
Lime butterfly    Papilio demoleus
Malabar Banded Swallowtail    Papilio liomedon
Malabar raven    Papilio dravidarum
Red Helen    Papilio helenus
Common Mormon    Papilio polytes
Blue Mormon    Papilio polymnestor
Paris Peacock    Papilio paris
Buddha Peacock    Papilio buddha
Common Banded Peacock    Papilio crino
Coliadinae: coliadini
Lemon Emigrant    Catopsilia pomona
Mottled Emigrant    Catopsilia pyranthe
Small Yellow    Eurema brigitta
Spotless Grass Yellow    Eurema laeta
Common Grass Yellow    Eurema hecabe
Three Spot Grass Yellow    Eurema blanda
One Spot Grass Yellow    Eurema andersoni
Nigiri Clouded Yellow    Colias nilagiriensis (endemic)
Eurema nilagiriensis (endemic)
Pierinae: Pierini
Common Jezebel    Delias Eucharis
Psyche    Leptosia Nina
Painted Sawtooth    Prioneris Sita
Indian Cabbage White    Pieris Candida
Common Gull    Cepora Nerissa
Lesser Gull    Cepora Nadina
Caper White    Anaphaeis aurota
Plain Puffin    Appias Indra
Striped Albatross    Appias Libythea
Common Albatross    Appias Lyncida
Chocolate Albatross    Appias Albina
Small Salmon Arab    Appias Wardi
Lesser Albatross    Colotis Amata (Endemic)
Small Orange Pip    Colotis etrida
Plain Orange Pip    Colotis Eucharis
Crimson Tip    Colotis Danae
Salmon Arab    Colotis fausta
Colotis Phisadia
Colotis Vestalis
White Orange tip    Ixias marianne
Yellow Orange Tip    Ixias Pyrene
Pieridae: Euchloeini
Common Wanderer    Pareronia valeria
Dark Wanderer    Pareronia ceylanica
Giant Orange Tip    Hebomoia glaucippe
Nymphalidae

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A moth is an insect closely related to the butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. Moths form the majority of this order; there are thought to be 150,000 to 250,000 different species of moth (about ten times the number of species of butterfly), with thousands of species yet to be described.Most species of moth are nocturnal, but there are crepuscular and diurnal species.
The Modern English word “moth” comes from Old English. Dutch “Mot” and German “Motte” all meaning “moth”). Perhaps its origins are related to the Old English “maða” meaning “maggot” or from the root of “midge” which until the 16th century was used mostly to indicate the larva, usually in reference to devouring clothes.
The study of butterflies and moths is known as lepidoptery, and biologists that specialize in either are called lepidopterists. As a pastime, watching butterflies and moths is known as butterflying and mothing.

Economic significance of moths
Moths, and particularly their caterpillars, are a major agricultural pest in many parts of the world. Examples include corn borers and bollworms.The caterpillar of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) causes severe damage to forests in the northeast United States, where it is an invasive species. In temperate climates, the codling moth causes extensive damage, especially to fruit farms. In tropical and subtropical climates, the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is perhaps the most serious pest of brassicaceous crops.

Several moths in the family Tineidae are commonly regarded as pests because their larvae eat fabric such as clothes and blankets made from natural proteinaceous fibers such as wool or silk.They are less likely to eat mixed materials containing artificial fibers. There are some reports that they can be repelled by the scent of wood from juniper and cedar, by lavender, or by other natural oils. However, many consider this unlikely to prevent infestation. Naphthalene (the chemical used in mothballs) is considered more effective, but there are concerns over its effects on human health. Moth larvae may be killed by freezing the items which they infest for several days at a temperature below −8 °C (17.6 °F).
Some moths are farmed. The most notable of these is the silkworm, the larva of the domesticated moth Bombyx mori. It is farmed for the silk with which it builds its cocoon. As of 2002, the silk industry produces over 130 million kilograms of raw silk, worth about 250 million U.S. dollars, each year.Not all silk is produced by Bombyx mori. There are several species of Saturniidae that are also farmed for their silk, such as the Ailanthus moth (Samia cynthia group of species), the Chinese Oak Silkmoth (Antheraea pernyi), the Assam Silkmoth (Antheraea assamensis), and the Japanese Silk Moth (Antheraea yamamai).
The mopane worm, the caterpillar of Gonimbrasia belina, from the family Saturniidae, is a significant food resource in southern Africa.
Despite being notorious for eating clothing, most moth adults do not eat at all. Most like the Luna, Polyphemus, Atlas, Prometheus, Cercropia, and other large moths do not have mouths. When they do eat, moths will drink nectar.
The world`s leading collection of moths is the Museum Witt in Munich, Germany.
Nocturnal insectivores often feed on moths; these include some bats, some species of owls and other species of birds. Moths are also eaten by some species of lizards, cats, dogs, rodents, and some bears. Moth larvae are vulnerable to being parasitized by Ichneumonidae.
Baculoviruses are parasite double-stranded DNA insect viruses that are used mostly as biological control agents. They are members of the Baculoviridae, a family that is restricted to insects. Most baculovirus isolates have been obtained from insects, in particular from Lepidoptera.
There is evidence that ultrasound in the range emitted by bats causes flying moths to make evasive maneuvers because bats eat moths. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that cause it to drop a few inches in its flight to evade attack.Tiger moths also emit clicks which foil bats’ echolocation.

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Colour
Moths: Duller colours
Butterflies and Skippers: Brighter colours
Exceptions: Many moths are brilliantly coloured, especially day-flying ones such as the northern Queensland Day Moth Alcides metaurus (Uraniidae), or the Jacob’s Coat Moth Agarista agricola (Noctuidae). Many butterflies and skippers are dark brown with few markings.

Wings
Moths: Wings are linked together with a bristle-like structure called a frenulum
Butterflies and Skippers: Wings are not linked – no frenulum
Exceptions: Australia has the only skipper in the world with a frenulum, the Regent Skipper Euschemon rafflesia (Hesperiidae). Also, many moths do not have a frenulum.

Resting posture
Moths: Hold wings flat when resting
Butterflies and Skippers: Hold wings together above body when resting
Exceptions: Many moths, including geometrid moths hold their wings up in a butterfly-like fashion when resting. Butterflies in the lycaenid subfamily Riodininae, and skippers in the subfamily Pyrginae hold their wings flat when resting.

Forelegs
Moths: Forelegs fully developed
Butterflies and Skippers: Forelegs reduced, missing terminal (end) segments
Exceptions: Only some butterflies have reduced forelegs. Most skippers have normal forelegs.

Pupae
Moths: Pupae spin a cocoon
Butterflies and Skippers: Pupae (chrysalids) not in cocoon
Exceptions: Many moths do not spin a cocoon, many butterflies and skippers form a silken shelter, often with plant leaves.

Activity
Moths: Fly at night
Butterflies and Skippers: Fly during the day
Exceptions: A few butterflies and skippers are active at dusk, many moth species are day-flying.

A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly’s life cycle consists of four parts, egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. Butterflies comprise the true butterflies (superfamily Papilionoidea), the skippers (superfamily Hesperioidea) and the moth-butterflies (superfamily Hedyloidea). All the many other families within the Lepidoptera are referred to as moths.

Butterflies exhibit polymorphism, mimicry and aposematism. Some, like the Monarch, will migrate over long distances. Some butterflies have evolved symbiotic and parasitic relationships with social insects such as ants. Some species are pests because in their larval stages they can damage domestic crops or trees; however, some species are agents of pollination of some plants, and caterpillars of a few butterflies (e.g., Harvesters) eat harmful insects. Culturally, butterflies are a popular motif in the visual and literary arts.

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Catterpillar
Butterfly larvae, or caterpillars, consume plant leaves and spend practically all of their time in search of food. Although most caterpillars are herbivorous, a few species such as Spalgis epius and Liphyra brassolis are entomophagous (insect eating).
Some larvae, especially those of the Lycaenidae, form mutual associations with ants. They communicate with the ants using vibrations that are transmitted through the substrate as well as using chemical signals.The ants provide some degree of protection to these larvae and they in turn gather honeydew secretions.
Caterpillars mature through a series of stages called instars. Near the end of each instar, the larva undergoes a process called apolysis, in which the cuticle, a tough outer layer made of a mixture of chitin and specialized proteins, is released from the softer epidermis beneath, and the epidermis begins to form a new cuticle beneath. At the end of each instar, the larva moults the old cuticle, and the new cuticle expands, before rapidly hardening and developing pigment. Development of butterfly wing patterns begins by the last larval instar.
Butterfly caterpillars have three pairs of true legs from the thoracic segments and up to 6 pairs of prolegs arising from the abdominal segments. These prolegs have rings of tiny hooks called crochets that help them grip the substrate.
Some caterpillars have the ability to inflate parts of their head to appear snake-like. Many have false eye-spots to enhance this effect. Some caterpillars have special structures called osmeteria which are everted to produce smelly chemicals. These are used in defense.
Host plants often have toxic substances in them and caterpillars are able to sequester these substances and retain them into the adult stage. This helps making them unpalatable to birds and other predators. Such unpalatibility is advertised using bright red, orange, black or white warning colours. The toxic chemicals in plants are often evolved specifically to prevent them from being eaten by insects. Insects in turn develop countermeasures or make use of these toxins for their own survival. This “arms race” has led to the coevolution of insects and their host plants.
butterfly wing
Wings or wing pads are not visible on the outside of the larva, but when larvae are dissected, tiny developing wing disks can be found on the second and third thoracic segments, in place of the spiracles that are apparent on abdominal segments. Wing disks develop in association with a trachea that runs along the base of the wing, and are surrounded by a thin peripodial membrane, which is linked to the outer epidermis of the larva by a tiny duct.
Wing disks are very small until the last larval instar, when they increase dramatically in size, are invaded by branching tracheae from the wing base that precede the formation of the wing veins, and begin to develop patterns associated with several landmarks of the wing.
Near pupation, the wings are forced outside the epidermis under pressure from the hemolymph, and although they are initially quite flexible and fragile, by the time the pupa breaks free of the larval cuticle they have adhered tightly to the outer cuticle of the pupa (in obtect pupae). Within hours, the wings form a cuticle so hard and well-joined to the body that pupae can be picked up and handled without damage to the wings.
Pupa
When the larva is fully grown, hormones such as prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) are produced. At this point the larva stops feeding and begins “wandering” in the quest of a suitable pupation site, often the underside of a leaf.
The larva transforms into a pupa (or chrysalis) by anchoring itself to a substrate and moulting for the last time. The chrysalis is usually incapable of movement, although some species can rapidly move the abdominal segments or produce sounds to scare potential predators.
The pupal transformation into a butterfly through metamorphosis has held great appeal to mankind. To transform from the miniature wings visible on the outside of the pupa into large structures usable for flight, the pupal wings undergo rapid mitosis and absorb a great deal of nutrients. If one wing is surgically removed early on, the other three will grow to a larger size. In the pupa, the wing forms a structure that becomes compressed from top to bottom and pleated from proximal to distal ends as it grows, so that it can rapidly be unfolded to its full adult size. Several boundaries seen in the adult color pattern are marked by changes in the expression of particular transcription factors in the early pupa.
Adult or imago
The adult, sexually mature, stage of the insect is known as the imago. As Lepidoptera, butterflies have four wings that are covered with tiny scales (see photo). The fore and hindwings are not hooked together, permitting a more graceful flight. An adult butterfly has six legs, but in the nymphalids, the first pair is reduced. After it emerges from its pupal stage, a butterfly cannot fly until the wings are unfolded. A newly emerged butterfly needs to spend some time inflating its wings with blood and letting them dry, during which time it is extremely vulnerable to predators. Some butterflies’ wings may take up to three hours to dry while others take about one hour. Most butterflies and moths will excrete excess dye after hatching. This fluid may be white, red, orange, or in rare cases, blue.
Habits
Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen,tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are important as pollinators for some species of plants although in general they do not carry as much pollen load as bees. They are however capable of moving pollen over greater distances.Flower constancy has been observed for at least one species of butterfly.
As adults, butterflies consume only liquids and these are sucked by means of their proboscis. They feed on nectar from flowers and also sip water from damp patches. This they do for water, for energy from sugars in nectar and for sodium and other minerals which are vital for their reproduction. Several species of butterflies need more sodium than provided by nectar. They are attracted to sodium in salt and they sometimes land on people, attracted by human sweat. Besides damp patches, some butterflies also visit dung, rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. In many species, this mud-puddling behaviour is restricted to the males, and studies have suggested that the nutrients collected are provided as a nuptial gift along with the spermatophore during mating.
Butterflies sense the air for scents, wind and nectar using their antennae. The antennae come in various shapes and colours. The hesperids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensillae. A butterfly’s sense of taste is coordinated by chemoreceptors on the tarsi, or feet, which work only on contact, and are used to determine whether an egg-laying insect’s offspring will be able to feed on a leaf before eggs are laid on it.Many butterflies use chemical signals, pheromones, and specialized scent scales (androconia) and other structures (coremata or ‘Hair pencils’ in the Danaidae) are developed in some species.
Vision is well developed in butterflies and most species are sensitive to the ultraviolet spectrum. Many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of UV reflective patches.Color vision may be widespread but has been demonstrated in only a few species.
Some butterflies have organs of hearing and some species are also known to make stridulatory and clicking sounds.
Many butterflies, such as the Monarch butterfly, are migratory and capable of long distance flights. They migrate during the day and use the sun to orient themselves. They also perceive polarized light and use it for orientation when the sun is hidden.
Many species of butterfly maintain territories and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have courtship flight displays. Basking is an activity which is more common in the cooler hours of the morning. Many species will orient themselves to gather heat from the sun. Some species have evolved dark wingbases to help in gathering more heat and this is especially evident in alpine forms.
Migration
Many butterflies migrate over long distances. Particularly famous migrations are those of the Monarch butterfly from Mexico to northern USA and southern Canada, a distance of about 4000 to 4800 km (2500–3000 miles). Other well known migratory species include the Painted Lady and several of the Danaine butterflies. Spectacular and large scale migrations associated with the Monsoons are seen in peninsular India. Migrations have been studied in more recent times using wing tags and also using stable hydrogen isotopes.
Butterflies have been shown to navigate using time compensated sun compasses. They can see polarized light and therefore orient even in cloudy conditions. The polarized light in the region close to the ultraviolet spectrum is suggested to be particularly important.
It is suggested that most migratory butterflies are those that belong to semi-arid areas where breeding seasons are short.The life-histories of their host plants also influence the strategies of the butterflies.
Types of butterflies
Hesperiidae (skippers): The skippers are commonly the small brownish butterflies that hop from flower to flower. They are characterized by relatively large eyes and closed wings at rest. Spreadwing skippers are the general exception to that rule.
Some of the common names for skippers are longtails, flashers, cloudywings, flats, sootywings, duskywings and skipperlings
Lycaenidae (gossamer-wings): The gossamer-wing butterflies are characteristically small butterflies. All the subfamilies have similar looking species making for difficult field identification. Except for their sharing a blue color, the blue butterflies are among the most difficult to identify. Other member of the Lycaenidae family are the coppers, hairstreaks and elfins
Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies): The brush-footed butterflies make up the largest family of butterflies, divided into a number of subfamilies, genera and species. Some of the common names for brush-footed butterfly species are: fritillaries, checkerspots, ladies, crescents, commas and tortoiseshells.
Many brush-footed butterfly species have wings with an orange color, making a close examination of their wing patterns necessary for proper identification.
Papilionidae (swallowtails): The swallowtail butterflies are the primary butterflies in this family. They are characterized by extended apendages (tails) at the bottom of their wings.
Pieridae (whites and sulphurs): The white and sulphur (yellow) butterflies are easy to see in the field and initially identified by color. One of the most common white butterflies you see in yards and gardens is the Cabbage White butterfly. The catepillar is fond of garden vegetables. Marbles, orangetips, yellows and dogfaces are also in the family.
Riodinidae (metalmarks): They are typically small brown butterflies, found in the Southwest and Rio Grande valley.
Butterfly Garden
A butterfly garden is an easy way to attract more butterflies to your yard. Creating a butterfly garden also helps them, since many natural butterfly habitats have been lost to human activities like building homes, roads and farms. It is easy to increase the number and variety of butterflies in your yard. Simply fill your garden with the plants the caterpillars enjoy eating, and plants that adult butterflies feed on as well.
By planting a butterfly garden with all of the right kinds of plants and flowers that butterflies love to feed on and lay eggs on, you will enjoy a yard full of butterflies throughout the growing season. A large area isn’t necessarily needed. Butterfly gardens can be any size – a window box, part of your landscaped yard, or even a wild untended area on your property.
6 Steps to Create a Butterfly Garden
1) Research to learn which kinds of butterflies are native to your area. Creating a butterfly garden should start with some serious research to learn which kinds of butterflies are native to your area.
2) Make a list of all of the different kinds of butterflies you would like to attract. Once you’ve done this, you should learn which flowers and plants they both feed on and lay eggs on. All of the plants will need to be native to your area and therefore easy to grow with the right conditions and care. Adult butterflies will visit for a longer period if they find host plants to lay their eggs on.
3) Learn about plants and flowers. There are two types of plants that you will want to consider in your butterfly garden plan – Nectar Plants and Host Plants.  It’s important to learn what Butterfly Plants look like, how tall they will grow and what conditions they thrive in.  Creating a Butterfly Garden Plan by mapping out on paper where plants are to be placed and how much space they will take up when fully grown is a good way to estimate how much room you will need, how many plants you’ll need and what your finished butterfly garden will look like.
4) Check with a local greenhouse about getting these plants and flowers. Find out which ones are annuals and which are perennials. You may want to plant the annuals in the front of the garden because they will need to be replaced each year. Perennials will come back year after year so these should be near the back of the butterfly garden and left alone to grow and thrive. If you are unable to find the plants and flowers locally, check online or in catalogs that sell bulbs and order them there. Be sure to learn when and how to best plant them, especially if you are purchasing bulbs and are starting the plants from scratch.
5) Consider adding some butterfly garden accessories like a Butterfly House. These beautiful homes for butterflies have slots that are the ideal size for keeping birds out while giving butterflies protection from the wind and weather, and make a wonderful garden decoration. You could also include an additional nectar source close by to supplement your flowers. By providing both the food and shelter butterflies need you can prolong the butterfly’s stay in your garden and draw in others.
6) Enjoy your butterfly garden. Once you have designed and started your butterfly garden, you can be proud that you have made a habitat for butterflies in your own yard, which helps with the conservation of the many species of quickly disappearing butterflies today. You will enjoy hours of entertainment and delight watching butterflies flutter in and around your new butterfly garden.

Insects (from Latin insectum, means “cut into sections”) are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae. They are among the most diverse group of animals on the planet and include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living organisms.The number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million and potentially represent over 90% of the differing metazoan life forms on Earth.Insects may be found in nearly all environments, although only a small number of species occur in the oceans, a habitat dominated by another arthropod group, the crustaceans.

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Insects typically move about by walking, flying or occasionally swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedial gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles. Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their life underwater, with larval adaptations that include gills and some adult insects are aquatic and have adaptations for swimming. Some species, like water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some insects, such as certain bees, ants, and termites are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, like earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order Coleoptera communicate with light.

General body plan

Insects have segmented bodies supported by an exoskeleton, a hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but interconnected units, or tagmata: a head, a thorax, and an abdomen.The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, and, if present, one to three simple eyes (or ocelli) and three sets of variously modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax has six segmented legs—one pair each for the prothorax, mesothorax and the metathorax segments making up the thorax—and, if present in the species, two or four wings. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, though in a few species of insects these segments may be fused together or reduced in size. The abdomen also contains most of the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive internal structures.There is considerable variation and many adaptations in the body parts of insects especially wings, legs, antenna, mouth-parts etc.

Insect outer skeleton, the cuticle, is made up of two layers: the epicuticle, which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and a lower layer called the procuticle. The procuticle is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers: an outer layer known as the exocuticle and an inner layer known as the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, criss-crossing each others in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and hardened.The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft-bodied insects (eg.caterpillars), especially during their larval stages.