Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Vitex
Species: V. negundo
Synonyms
Vitex cannabifolia Siebold & Zucc.
Vitex incisa Lam.
Vitex incisa var. heterophylla Franch.
Vitex negundo var. heterophylla (Franch.) Rehder
Vitex negundo, commonly known as the five-leaved cheste tree, is a large aromatic shrub with quadrangular, densely whitish, tomentose branchlets. It is widely used in folk medicine, particularly in South and Southeast Asia.
It is known under a variety of names in different languages: Tamil: nochhi; Hindi: nirgundi; Sanskrit: sindhuvara; Filipino: lagundî; Sinhala: nika; and Bengali: Nishinda
Vitex negundo is an erect shrub or small tree growing from 2 to 8 m (6.6 to 26 ft) in height. The bark is reddish-brown. It leaves are digitate, with five lanceolate leaflets, sometimes three. Each leaflet is around 4 to 10 cm (1.6 to 3.9 in) in length, with the central leaflet being the largest and possessing a stalk. The leaf edges are toothed or serrated and the bottom surface is covered in hair.The numerous flowers are borne in panicles 10 to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in) in length. Each is around 6 to 7 cm (2.4 to 2.8 in) long and are white to blue in color. The petals are of different lengths, with the middle lower lobe being the longest. Both the corolla and calyx are covered in dense hairs.The fruit is a succulent drupe, 4 mm (0.16 in) in diameter, rounded to egg-shaped. It is black or purple when ripe.Vitex negundo is native to tropical Eastern and Southern Africa and Asia. It is widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere.Countries it is indigenous to include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Vitex negundo are commonly found near bodies of water, recently disturbed land, grasslands, and mixed open forests.
Uses
Medicinal Importance
Folk medicine
The leaves of V. negundo possess discutient properties and are applied to rheumatic swellings of the joints and in sprains. They may be applied locally to swellings from rheumatic arthritis and sprain.
The juice of the leaves is used for the treatment of fetid discharges. The principal constituents the leaf juice are casticin, isoorientin, chrysophenol D, luteolin, p–hydroxybenzoic acid and D-fructose. The plant has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial antifungal and analgesic activities. These properties are useful in the treatment of superficial bruises, injuries, sores and skin infections.
The essential oil of V. negundo has been used to reduce inflammation and swelling of joints due to rheumatism and injuries.The main constituents of the oil are sabinene, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, β-caryophyllene, α-guaiene and globulol constituting 61.8% of the oil.
Vitex negunda is used for treating stored garlic against pests in the Philippines.
Herbal medicine, rather than merely curing a particular disease, aims at returning the body back to its natural state of
health. The phytochemical components of medicinal plants often act individually, additively or synergistically
in improvement of health . After having analyzed the various chemical components present in different parts of
Vn, it is imperative that focus shifts to the medicinal applications of the plant. Myriad medicinal properties have
been ascribed to Vn and the plant has also been extensively used in treatment of a plethora of ailments. These
properties have been categorized under three heads – traditional medicine, folk medicine and pharmacological
evidence.
Traditional medicine
Traditional medicine mainly comprises of Indian Ayurveda, Arabic Unani medicine and traditional Chinese
medicine. In Asia and Latin America, populations continue to use traditional medicine as a result of historical
circumstances and cultural beliefs. Traditional medicine accounts for around 40% of all health care delivered in
China. Up to 80% of the population in Africa uses traditional medicine to help meet their health care needs.
Ayurveda
The plant finds mention in the verses of the Charaka Samhita which is unarguably the most ancient and
authoritative textbook of Indian Ayurveda. Vn has been designated as an anthelminthic and is
prescribed as a vermifuge in the exposition on the Charaka Samhita by Sharma.
Other Ayurvedic uses of Vn are described by Tirtha. People sleep on pillows stuffed with Vn leaves to dispel
catarrh and headache and smoke the leaves for relief. Crushed leaf poultice is applied to cure headaches, neck gland
sores, tubercular neck swellings and sinusitis. Essential oil of the leaves is also effective in treatment of venereal
diseases and other syphilitic skin disorders. A leaf decoction with Piper nigrum is used in catarrhal fever with
heaviness of head and dull hearing. A tincture of the root-bark provides relief from irritability of bladder and rheumatism.
Jadhav and Bhutani report the Ayurvedic use of Vn in dysmenorrhea. Patkar refers to the formulations
described in Anubhoga Vaidya Bhaga, a compendium of formulations in cosmetology, in outlining the use of Vn
leaves along with those of Azadirachta indica, Eclipta alba, Sphaeranthus indicus and Carum copticum in a notable
rejuvenation treatment known as Kayakalpa.
Unani medicine
Khare outlines the applications of Vn, commonly known as Nisinda in Unani medicine. The seeds are
administered internally with sugarcane vinegar for removal of swellings. Powdered seeds are used in spermatorrhoea
and serve as an aphrodisiac when dispensed along with dry Zingiber officinale and milk.
Chinese medicine
The Chinese Pharmacopoeia prescribes the fruit of Vn in the treatment of reddened, painful, and puffy eyes;
headache and arthritic joints.
Folk medicine
Folklore systems of medicine continue to serve a large segment of population, especially those in rural and tribal
areas, regardless of the advent of modern medicine.The entries regarding the multifarious applications of Vn in
folk medicine have been grouped regionally to emphasize the ethnobotanical diversity and ubiquity of the plant.
Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity
Yunos et al. and Jana et al. established anti-inflammatory properties of Vn extracts in acute and subacute inflammation. Anti-inflammatory and pain suppressing activities of fresh leaves of Vn are attributed to
prostaglandin synthesis inhibition, antihistamine, membrane stabilising and antioxidant activities
Effect on oxidative stress
Leaf extracts of Vn were determined to possess anti-oxidant potential by. The extracts were useful in
decreasing levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in Freund’s adjuvant induced
arthritic-rats . The extracts also possess the ability to combat oxidative stress by reducing lipid peroxidation
owing to the presence of flavones, vitamin C and carotene. Rooban et al.evaluated the antioxidant and
therapeutic potential of Vn flavonoids in modulating solenoid-induced cataract and found it to be effective.
Enzyme-inhibitory activity
Root extracts of Vn showed inhibitory activity against enzymes such as lipoxygenase and butyryl-cholinesterase
; α-chymotrypsin; xanthine-oxidase and tyrosinase . Woradulayapinij et al. reported the
HIV type 1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity of the water extract of the aerial parts of Vn.
Effect on reproductive potential
The flavonoid rich fraction of seeds of Vn caused disruption of the latter stages of spermatogenesis in dogs
and interfered with male reproductive function in rats. It must however be noted that these findings are in
sharp contrast with the traditional use of Vn as aphrodisiac. Hu et al.determined that ethanolic extracts
of Vn showed estrogen-like activity and propounded its use in hormone replacement therapy.
Histomorphological and cytotoxic effects
Tandon and Gupta studied the histomorphological effect of Vn extracts in rats and found the stomach tissue
to be unaffected even by toxic doses; while dose-dependent changes were observed in the heart, liver and lung
tissues. Cytotoxic effect of leaf extracts of Vn was tested and affirmed using COLO-320 tumour cells. On
one hand, Diaz et al.found the chloroform extracts of Vn leaves to be toxic to a human cancer cell line
panel while on the other; Yunos et al.reported that Vn extracts were non-cytotoxic on mammary and
genito-urinary cells of mice.
Drug potentiating ability
Administration of Vn extracts potentiated the effect of commonly used anti-inflammatory drugs such as
ibuprofen and phenylbutazone; analgesics such as meperidine, aspirin, morphine and pethidine;
sedative-hypnotic drugs like pentobarbitone, diazepam and chlorpromazine; anti-convulsive agents
such diphenylhydantoin and valporic acid.

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Myrtales
Family: Combretaceae
Genus: Terminalia
Species: T. chebula
Terminalia is a genus of large trees of the flowering plant family Combretaceae, comprising around 100 species distributed in tropical regions of the world. This genus gets it name from Latin terminus, referring to the fact that the leaves appear at the very tips of the shoots.
Trees of this genus are known especially as a source of secondary metabolites, e.g. cyclic triterpenes and their derivatives, flavonoids, tannins, and other aromatics. Some of these substances have antifungal, antibacterial, anti-cancer and hepatoprotective indications.
Terminalia chebula (Black Myrobalan or Chebulic Myrobalan) is a species of Terminalia, native to southern Asia from India and Nepal east to southwestern China (Yunnan), and south to Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Vietnam.
It is a deciduous tree growing to 30-metre (98 ft) tall, with a trunk up to 1-metre (3 ft 3 in) in diameter. The leaves are alternate to subopposite in arrangement, oval, 7–8-centimetre (2.8–3.1 in) long and 4.5–10-centimetre (1.8–3.9 in) broad with a 1–3-centimetre (0.39–1.2 in) petiole. The fruit is drupe-like, 2–4.5-centimetre (0.79–1.8 in) long and 1.2–2.5-centimetre (0.47–0.98 in) broad, blackish, with five longitudinal ridges.There are many varieties such as
Terminalia chebula var. chebula. Leaves and shoots hairless, or only hairy when very young.
Terminalia chebula var. tomentella (Kurz) C.B.Clarke. Leaves and shoots silvery to orange hairy.
This tree yields smallish, ribbed and nut-like fruits which are picked when still green and then pickled, boiled with a little added sugar in their own syrup or used in preserves. The seed of the fruit, which has an elliptical shape, is an abrasive seed enveloped by a fleshy and firm pulp. It is regarded as a universal panacea in the Ayur-Vedic Medicine and in the Traditional Tibetan medicine. It is reputed to cure blindness and it is believed to inhibit the growth of malignant tumours.
In Urdu and Hindi it is called Harad, Haritaki, or Harada, respectively ‘Inknut’. In Sri Lanka it is called Aralu. In Marathi it is called as ‘Hirada’, in Kannada it is called ‘Alalekaayi’ and in Tamil it is called ‘Kadukkai’. In Bengali it is called horitoky. In Assamese it is called Hilikha. In Telugu it is called ‘Karakkaya’. In the United States it is found in some Indian stores; it is known as ‘Harde Whole’.
The dry nut’s peel is used to cure cold-related nagging coughs. The bark/peel of the nut is placed in the cheek. Although the material does not dissolve, the resulting saliva, bitter in taste, is believed to have medicinal qualities to cure cold related coughs. Its fruit has digestive, anti-inflammatory, anthelmentic, cardiotonic, aphrodisiac and restorative properties and is additionally beneficial in flatulence, constipation, piles, cough and colds.
T. chebula contains terflavin B, a type of tannin while chebulinic acid is found in the fruits.
Haritaki is a rejuvenative, laxative (unripe), astringent (ripe), anthelmintic, nervine, expectorant, tonic, carminative, and appetite stimulant. It is used in people who have leprosy (including skin disorders), anemia, narcosis, piles, chronic, intermittent fever, heart disease, diarrhea, anorexia, cough and excessive secretion of mucus, and a range of other complaints and symptoms. According to the Bhavaprakasha, Haritaki was derived from a drop of nectar from Indra’s cup.Haritaki is use to mitigate Vata and eliminate ama (toxins), indicated by constipation, a thick greyish tongue coating, abdominal pain and distension, foul feces and breath, flatulence, weakness, and a slow pulse.The fresh fruit is dipana and the powdered dried fruit made into a paste and taken with jaggery is malashodhana, removing impurities and wastes from the body.Haritaki is an effective purgative when taken as a powder, but when the whole dried fruit is boiled the resulting decoction is grahi, useful in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery.The fresh or reconstituted fruit taken before meals stimulates digestion, whereas if taken with meals it increases intelligence, nourishes the senses and purifies the digestive and genitourinary tract.Taken after meals Haritaki treats diseases caused by the aggravation of Vayu, Pitta and Kapha as a result of unwholesome food and drinks. Haritaki is a rasayana to Vata, increasing awareness, and has a nourishing, restorative effect on the central nervous system.Haritaki improves digestion, promotes the absorption of nutrients, and regulates colon function.

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Millettia
Species: M. pinnata
Synonyms
Cytisus pinnatus L.
Derris indica (Lam.) Bennet
Galedupa indica Lam.
Galedupa pinnata (L.) Taub.
Pongamia glabra Vent.
Pongamia mitis Kurz
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Milletia pinnata is a species of tree in the pea family, Fabaceae, native in tropical and temperate Asia including parts of India, China, Japan, Malesia, Australia and Pacific islands.It is often known by the synonym Pongamia pinnata as it was moved to the genus Millettia only recently. Common names include Indian Beech, Pongam, Karanj (Hindi), Honge (Kannada),Pungai (Tamil),Kānuga (Telugu),Naktamāla (Sanskrit).
A legume tree that grows to about 15–25 meters (15–80 ft) in height with a large canopy which spreads equally wide. It may be deciduous for short periods. The leaves are a soft, shiny burgundy in early summer and mature to a glossy, deep green as the season progresses. Flowering starts in general after 3–4 years. Cropping of pods and single almond sized seeds can occur by 4–6 years. Small clusters of white, purple, and pink flowers blossom on their branches throughout the year, maturing into brown seed pods.
Naturally distributed in tropical and temperate Asia, from India to Japan to Thailand to Malesia to north and north-eastern Australia to some Pacific islands;It has been propagated and distributed further around the world in humid and subtropical environments from sea-level to 1200m, although in the Himalayan foothills it is not found above 600m.Withstanding temperatures slightly below 0 °C (32 °F) and up to about 50 °C (120 °F) and annual rainfall of 500–2,500 mm (20–100 in), the tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, including oolitic limestone, and will grow in most soil types, even with its roots in salt water.
Silviculture
Pongam is easily established by direct seeding or by planting nursery-raised seedlings or stump cuttings of 1-2 cm root-collar diameter. Propagation by branch cuttings and root suckers is also possible. In peninsular India, the seeding season is April to June, and the seed yield per tree ranges from about 10 kg to more than 50 kg. There are 1500-1700 seeds per kg. Seeds, which require no treatment before sowing, remain viable for about a year when stored in air-tight containers.
Seed germinates within two weeks of sowing. Seedlings attain a height of 25-30 cm in their first growing season. Transplanting to the field should occur at the beginning of the next rainy season when seedlings are 60 cm in height (GOI 1983). Seedlings have large root systems. Soil should be retained around the roots during transplanting. Seedling survival and growth benefit from annual weed control for the first three years after transplanting.
The spacing adopted in avenue plantings is about 8 m between plants. In block plantings, the spacing can range from 2 x 2 to 5 x 5 m. Pongam seedlings withstand shade very well and can be interplanted in existing tree stands. This species can be regenerated bv coppice management. Information on management practices to maximize seed or biomass production is not available and should be investigated. Because it tolerates moderate levels of salinity, pongam is an ideal candidate for saline soil reclamation.
Symbiosis
Nodulation is reported in pongam (Dayama, 1985). In nurseries and in the field the presence of nodules on uninoculated pongam, seedlings is common. Therefore, this species may not be specific in its Rhizobium strain requirement.
Limitations
Pongam attracts many pests and diseases. Some of the important pests are Parnara mathias, Gracillaria sp., Indarbela quadrinotata, Myllocerus curvicornis, and Acrocercops sp. (Anon. 1994). Attacks by these insects cause whitish streaks and the formation of galls on affected leaves. The lateral spread of roots of this species, about 9 m in 18 years, is greater than most other tree species (Misra and Singh 1987). Moreover, it produces root suckers profusely. Because of these characteristics, pongam is unsuitable for agroforestry and has the potential to become a weed if not managed carefully.
The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot make it drought-tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation, a symbiotic process by which gaseous nitrogen (N2) from the air is converted into ammonium (NH4+, a form of nitrogen available to the plant).
Specifically M. pinnata is an outbreeding diploid legume tree, with a haploid chromosome number of 11. Root nodules are of the determinate type (as those on soybean and common bean) formed by the causative bacterium Bradyrhizobium. The oil has a high content of triglycerides, and its disagreeable taste and odor are due to bitter flavonoid constituents including karanjin and karanjachromene.
M. pinnata is well-adapted to arid zones and has many traditional uses. It is often used for landscaping purposes as a windbreak or for shade due to the large canopy and showy fragrant flowers. The flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. The bark can be used to make twine or rope and it also yields a black gum that has historically been used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. The wood is said to be beautifully grained but splits easily when sawn thus relegating it to firewood, posts, and tool handles.
Although all parts of the plant are toxic and will induce nausea and vomiting if eaten, the fruits and sprouts, along with the seeds, are used in many traditional remedies. Juices from the plant, as well as the oil, are antiseptic and resistant to pests. In addition M. pinnata has the rare property of producing seeds of 25–40% lipid content of which nearly half is oleic acid.Oil made from the seeds, known as honge oil, is an important asset of this tree and has been used as lamp oil, in soap making, and as a lubricant for thousands of years.
Long used as shade tree, M. pinnata is heavily self-seeding and can spread lateral roots up to 9m over its lifetime. If not managed carefully it can quickly become a weed leading some, including Miami-Dade County, to label the tree as a invasive species.However this dense network of lateral roots makes this tree ideal for controlling soil erosion and binding sand dunes.
How good Pongamia Oil for Bio-Diesel?
Pongamia seed oil as a bio- fuel has physical properties very similar to conventional diesel. Emission properties, however, are cleaner for Bio-fuel than for conventional diesel. It has no polyaromatic compounds and reduced toxic smoke and soot emissions. A drastic reduction in sulphur content (<350ppm) and higher cetane number (>51) will be required in the petroleum diesel produced by refineries. However, bio-fuel meets these two important specifications and would help in improving the lubricity of low sulphur in (0.13- 0.16%) diesel. The present specification of flash point for petroleum diesel is 350 C which is lower than some other
countries in the world (>550C). Bio-fuel will help in raising the flash point, a requirement of safety.
Seeds, Seedlings, Cultivation method, Harvesting, life span of the tree, expelling oil, oil conversion to bio-diesel, Glycerin purification, Oil cake in to fertilizer or any other details on Pongamia can be provided on request.
What makes Millettia pinnata a superior, more sustainable biofuel species?
Carbon Sequestration. Millettia grows into a large tree with a 10-metre taproot, creating a huge carbon sink
Resilience. Millettia is resistant to a wide range of adverse climatic conditions: drought, light frost, water logging, moisture stress and salinity
Tolerance. Millettia does not require prime arable land otherwise used for food production
Millettia is tolerant of extremely poor soil types and does not require prime arable land otherwise used for food production.
Water and nutrients. Millettia is a nitrogen fixing leguminous tree that can source water and nutrients deep into in the subsoil
Carbon credits. Millettia’s carbon-fixing qualities qualify the tree for carbon credits
Millettia easily surpasses plantation oil yield of other oil crops such as oil palm and jatropha with high oil content per seed (45-50%).
Long-term yield. The oil yield in a Millettia plantation continues to increase for 15 years
Long life-span. Millettia has a lifespan of 100 years with a productive oil seed lifespan of 60 years
Millettia plantations can be managed by smaller/unskilled workforce due to lower crop maintenance and ability to utilise mechanical pruning and harvesting equipment.
Millettia is a legume therefore minimising irrigation and expensive fertilizer requirements.
Huge yield potential. At maturity, Millettia trees regularly produce 800 – 1,000kgs of seed, per tree, every year
Flexibility. Millettia thrives in temperatures from zero degrees Celsius, right up to 50 degrees Celsius
Environmental friendly. Intensive Millettia crops sequestrate more than 50 tonnes of CO2 per hectare, per year.
The seed oil has been found to be useful in diesel generators and, along with Jatropha, it is being explored in hundreds of projects throughout India and the third world as feedstock for biodiesel.It is especially attractive because it grows naturally through much of arid India, having very deep roots to reach water, and is one of the few crops well-suited to commercialization by India’s large population of rural poor. Several unelectrified villages have recently used honge oil, simple processing techniques, and diesel generators to create their own grid systems to run water pumps and electric lighting.
In 2003 the Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy as part of its Biofuel Rural Development Initiative started a campaign of education and public awareness to rural farmers about M. pinnata in two Indian states. One of the Himalayan Institute’s partners developed a consistently high yield scion that reduced the time it takes to mature from 10 years to as little as three. To help the farmers in the transition from traditional crops to M. pinnata the Indian government has contributed over $30 million in low-interest loans and donated 4.5 million kg (5,000 short tons) of rice to sustain impoverished drought-stricken farmers until the trees begin to produce income. Since the project began in 2003 over 20 million trees have been planted and 45,000 farmers are now involved.
In 2006 the Himalayan Institute began looking at locations in Africa to transplant M. pinnata into. Initially they began in Uganda but due to the lack of infrastructure and growing desertification the project has been growing very slowly. They have also begun a project in the Kumbo region of Cameroon where conditions are better. There has been some suggestions that M. pinnata could be grown all the way across the continent as a way to prevent the encroachment of the Sahara.
The University of Queensland node of the Australian Research Council Center for Excellence in Legume Research, under the directorship of Professor Peter Gresshoff, in conjunction with Pacific Renewable Energy are currently working on M. pinnata for commercial use for the production of biofuel. Projects are currently focused on understanding aspects of M. pinnata including root biology, nodulation, nitrogen fixation, domestication genes, grafting, salinity tolerance, and the genetics of the oil production pathways. Emphasis is given to analyzing carbon sequestration (in relation to carbon credits) and nitrogen gain.
Research has also been put into using the material leftover from the oil extraction as a feed supplement for cattle, sheep and poultry as this byproduct contains up to 30% protein. Other studies have shown some potential for biocidal activity against V. cholerae and E. coli, as well an anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive (reduction in sensitivity to painful stimuli) and antipyretic (reduction in fever) properties. There is also research indicating that M. pinnata can be used as a natural insecticide.

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Ericales
Family: Sapotaceae
Genus: Madhuca
Species: M. longifolia
Vernacular names:
English: honey tree, butter tree
French: illipe, arbre à beurre, bassie, madhuca
India: moha, mohua, madhuca, illuppai, kuligam, madurgam, mavagam, nattiluppai, tittinam, mahwa, mahua, mowa, moa, mowrah
Sri Lanka: mi, illuppai, kulilgam, maduragam, mavagam, nattiluppai, tittinam
Synonymous names for this tree in some of the Indian states are mahua and mohwa in Hindi-speaking belt, mahwa, mahula and maul in Bengal, mahwa and mohwro in Maharashtra, mahuda in Gujarat, ippa Telugu in Andhra Pradesh, ippe or hippe in Karnataka (Kannada), illupei in Tamil, poonam and ilupa in Kerala (Malayalam) and mahula, moha and modgi in Orissa (Oriya).
Other botanical names: Bassia longifolia L., B. latifolia Roxb., Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel., M. latifolia (Roxb.) J.F.Macbr., Illipe latifolia (Roxb.) F.Muell., Illipe malabrorum (Engl.) Note: the authentic genus Bassia is in the Chenopodiaceae. The names B. longifolia and B. latifolia are illegitimate.
Varieties:
M. longifolia var. latifolia (Roxb.) A.Chev. (=B. latifolia (Roxb))
M. longifolia var. longifolia
Madhuca longifolia, commonly known as mahwa or mahua, is an Indian tropical tree found largely in the central and north Indian plains and forests. It is a fast-growing tree that grows to approximately 20 meters in height, possesses evergreen or semi-evergreen foliage, and belongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is adapted to arid environments, being a prominent tree in tropical mixed deciduous forests in India in the states of Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat and Orissa.
Uses
It is cultivated in warm and humid regions for its oleaginous seeds (producing between 20 and 200 kg of seeds annually per tree, depending on maturity), flowers and wood. The fat (solid at ambient temperature) is used for the care of the skin, to manufacture soap or detergents, and as a vegetable butter. It can also be used as a fuel oil. The product is often used in sweets and chocolates under the name “illipe”. The seed cakes obtained after extraction of oil constitute very good fertilizer. The flowers are used to produce an alcoholic drink in tropical India. Several parts of the tree, including the bark, are used for their medicinal properties. It is considered holy by many tribal communitites because of its usefulness.
The tree is considered a boon by the tribals who are forest dwellers and keenly conserve this tree. However, conservation of this tree has been marginalized, as it is not favoured by nontribals.
The leaves of Madhuca indica (M. longifolia) are fed on by the moth Antheraea paphia, which produces tassar silk (tussah), a form of wild silk of commercial importance in India.
The Tamils have several uses for M. longifolia (iluppai in Tamil). The saying “aalai illaa oorukku iluppaip poo charkkarai” indicates when there is no cane sugar available, the flower of M. longifolia can be used, as it is very sweet. However, Tamil tradition cautions that excessive use of this flower will result in imbalance of thinking and may even lead to lunacy.
The mahuwa flower is edible and is a food item for tribals. They are used to make syrup for medicinal purposes. They are also fermented to produce the alcoholic drink mahuwa, a country liquor. Tribals of Bastar in Chattisgarh and Orissa, Santhals of Santhal Paraganas (Jharkhand) and tribals of North Maharashtra consider the tree and the mahuwa drink as part of their cultural heritage. Mahuwa is an essential drink for tribal men and women during celebrations.The main ingredients used for making it are chhowa gud (granular mollasses) and dried mahuwa flowers.

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Bombax
Species: B. malabaricum DC
Synonyms
Bombax ceiba L.
Salmalia malabarica
Botanic description
Bombax costatum is a deciduous tree up to 25 m high, in the Sahel hardly over 6 m. Crown structure of young trees storeyed, becoming irregular and sturdy in older trees. Bark thick, grey brown and corky, with typical conical, stout, sharp-pointed spines on the stem and branches. Slash light red-brown. Leaves digitately compound, with 5-7 leaflets, 8-15 cm long, on long petioles. Leaflets partly ovate, partly acuminate at both ends, with 8-10 pairs of lateral nerves. Flowers (5-6 cm) long and solitary, deep red, orange or yellow, tulip-shaped, on long, glabrous

peduncles. Calyx cup-shaped. Fruit a dark brown, ellipsoidal capsule, composed of 5 valves, dehiscent, 8-16 cm long and 3-6 cm wide, of variable shape. The valves are furrowed for about one third the distance from the top to the middle. Fruit contains white floss, called kapok and several small seeds. The genus name ‘Bombax’ is derived from the Greek ‘bombux’, meaning silk, alluding to the dense wool-like floss covering the inner walls of the fruits and the seeds.

Botanical name : Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch
Family : Ulmaceae
SANSKRIT SYNONYMS
Chirivilva, Pootikaranja
AYURVEDIC PROPERTIES
Rasa : Tikta, Kashaya
Guna : Lakhu, Rooksha,
Virya : Ushna
PLANT NAME IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES
English : Indian elm, Kanju
Hindi : Papri, Cilbil,Kanju, Banchilla, Chilbil, Dhamna, Begana.
Malayalam : Aavil, Njettaval
PLANT DESCRIPTION
Medium to large sized glabrous deciduous tree grows up to 30 meters in height. Bark whitish yellowish grey; exfoliate with regular intervals and with offensive smell when cut. Leaves simple alternate, elliptic, entire glaberous with cordate base. Flowers greenish yellow. Male and bisexual flowers mixed in short racemes near leaf axils. Fruits are sub orbicular samara with membranous wings.Plant: 18m tall. Spreading, deciduous tree, with grey, pustular bark that is smooth when young, exfoliating in corky scales on older trees.Leaves: 8-13cm long and 3.2-6.3cm wide. Alternate, elliptic-ovate, glabrous, margins entire, apex acute or acuminate, base rounded or cordate, main nerves 5 to 7 pairs; stipules lanceolate.Flowers: Usually male and hermaphrodite mixed, small, greenish-yellow to brownish, pubescent, borne in short racemes or fascicles at the scars of fallen leaves; sepals often 4, pubescent.Fruit: An orbicular samara, 2.5 cm in diameter, with membranous, reticulately veined wings; seed flat. The crushed bark and leaves emit an unpleasant odour.
Indian Elm is a large deciduous tree, gowing up to 18 m tall. It has grey bark, covered with blisters, peeling in corky scales on old trees. Alternately arranged leaves are elliptic-ovate, 8-13 cm long and 3.2-6.3 cm wide, smooth, with entire margins, and a pointed tip. Leaf base is rounded or heart-shaped. Stipules are lance-
shaped. Crushed leaves emit an unpleasant odour. Flowers are small, greenish-yellow to brownish, pubescent, borne in short racemes or fascicles at the scars of fallen leaves. Sepals are velvety, often 4. Fruit is an a circular samara, 2.5 cm in diameter, with membranous, net-veined wings, and flat seed. Medicinal uses:  The bark of Indian Elm is used in rheumatism. Seed and paste of stem bark is used in treating ringworm. Bark and leaves are used for treating oedema, diabetes, leprosy and other skin diseases, intestinal disorders, piles and sprue.
Various parts of Holoptelea integrifolia, a roadside plant, are indicated by Charaka Samhitha, Sushrutha Samhitha and other traditional systems for the treatment of inflammations, acid gastritis, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, intestinal worms, vomiting, wounds, vitiligo, leprosy,filariasis, diabetes, haemorrhoids, dysmenorrhoea and rheumatism. The present study was aimed at harmacognostic and preliminary phytochemical investigations of H. integrifolia leaves and bark. The pharmacognostic investigations were carried out in terms of organoleptic, microscopic and physical parameters. The dried leaves and bark were subjected to successive Soxhlet extraction using petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol. These solvent extracts were subjected to a preliminary phytochemical screening to detect the different chemical principles present viz., carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, steroids, glycosides, alkaloids, tannins and phenolic compounds. The phytochemical analyses indicate that the plant contains carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, steroids, glycosides, alkaloids, tannins and phenolics

Vernacular Names
Malayalam : Ethi – ഇത്തി
Sanskrit : Plaksha, Udhumbara
Hindi : Pakar
Bengali : Paakudu
Tamil : Erulli, Ethi
Telugu : Kappa, Konda juvvi
Dye Fig is a climbing strangler, forming a tree with prop-roots, to 25m. Alternately arrange leaves, to 18×9 cm, are oval, glossy dark green above, pale green below, and have rounded tip and base. Leaves are often asymmetrial. Stalks are thick, to 1.5 cm. Fruit is a fig, appearing in leaf axils, usually paired, round, to 1.5 cm, ripening through orange to red or purple. The fruit of dye fig are the source of a red dye used in traditional fabric making in parts of Indonesia.
A large evergreen tree with few aerial roots, leaves short petioled, having smooth upper and rough lower surface, apex shortly and bluntly apiculate, stipules lanceolate, flowers seen in clusters, hypanyhodium, fruits small globose, yellowish when ripened .
Ficus is a pan-tropical genus of trees, shrubs and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological niches; most are
evergreen, but some deciduous species are endemic to areas outside of the tropics and to higher elevations.Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and distinctive pollination syndrome, which utilizes wasp species belonging to the Agaonidae family for pollination.
The specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but figs as a group are relatively easy to recognize.Many have aerial roots and a distinctive shape or habit, and their fruits distinguish them from other plants. The fig fruit is an enclosed inflorescence, sometimes referred to as a syconium, an urn-like structure lined on the inside with the fig’s tiny flowers. The unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, known as fig wasps that enter these closed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been a constant source of inspiration and wonder to biologists.Finally, there are three vegetative traits that together are unique to figs. All figs possess a white to yellowish sap (latex), some in copious quantities; the twig has paired stipules or a circular stipule scar if the stipules have fallen off; and the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins, a feature referred to as a “tri-veined”.
There are no unambiguous older fossils of Ficus. However, current molecular clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million years old,and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago.
Some better known species that represent the diversity of the genus include the Common Fig which is a small temperate deciduous tree whose fingered fig leaf is well known in art and iconography; the Weeping Fig (F. benjamina) a hemi-epiphyte with thin tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; the Creeping Fig (F. pumila), a vine whose small, ha

rd leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, leading to very high levels of alpha diversity. In the tropics, it is quite common to find that Ficus is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia as many as 70 or more species can co-exist.
Chemical Composition : Tannin, Saponin
Rasaadhi Gunaas
Rasa : Kashaayam, Madhuram
Guna : Guru, Rooksham
Veeryam : Sheeetham
Vipakam : Katu
Useful Parts :Bark,Leaves,Root,Fruit
Indications :
01. Kapha pitha hara
02. Skin diseases
03. Ulcers
04. Diabetes
05. Ulcerative stomatitis
06. Leucorrhoea
07. Gyaenacological problems
08. Blood purifier
09. Moothra grahi
10. Yonee roga
11. Visha hara
12. Kushta
13. Arshas
14. Reduces Urinary sugar in Diabetes

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Semecarpus
Species: S. anacardium
Many herbal remedies individually or in combination have beenrecommended in various medical treatises for the cure of different diseases.Semecarpus anacardium (SA) linn , is a plant well-knownfor its medicinal value in ayurvedic and siddha system of medicine. Chemical andphytochemical analyses of Semecarpus anacardium nut reveal the presence ofbiflavonoids, phenolic compounds, bhilawanols, minerals, vitamins and amino acids.A variety of nut extract preparations from this source are effective against manydiseases viz- arthritis, tumours, infections etc. However the mechanism of thepharmacological action of S.anacardium nut can be greatly aided by the isolation ofits active principle f and determination of structure-function relationship. Also thetherapeutic effectiveness of S. anacardium needs to be verified by controlled clinicalstudies
Active Principles: Nut shells contain thebiflavonoids: biflavones A, C, A1, A2,tetrahydrorobustaflavone, B(tetrahydromentoflavone), jeediflavone semecarpuflavone andgulluflavone. Oil fromnuts, bhilavinol, containsa mixture of phenolic compounds mainly of 1,2-dihydroxy-3 (pentadecadienyl-8, 11) benzene and 1,2-dihydroxy-3 (pentadecadienyl-8′, 11’)- benzene.

medicinal uses

Detoxified nut of Bhallaataka (SA) were incorporatedin prescriptions for toxic conditions, obstinate skindiseases, tumors, malignant growths, fevers,haemoptysis, excessive menstruation, vaginaldischarge, deficient lactation, constipation, intestinalparasites. (Charaka, Sushruta), Bhallaataka (SA),Hartaki (Terminalia chebula) and Jiraka (Cuminumcyminum), mixed with jaggery and made into a sweetbolus, were administered in splengomegaly.(Vrindamaadhava).. A decoction of bruised fruit in a dose of 25 ml was given for asthma. Adecoction with milk and purified butter, in graduallyincreasing doses, was given in peripheral neuritis,sciatica, facial paralysis, hemiplegia. Bhallaatakavardhamanna (Vrindamaadhava) was used as anervine tonic. Nuts boiled with 1.25 l milk were givenas aphrodiasic. (Ashtaanga Sangraha).Bhallaataka Rasaayana of Charaka was prescribedas a potent rejuvenating tonic. Purified butter, cookedwith the paste and decoction of nut, mixed with sugar,was administered for treating tumors (Chakradatta).Bhallaataka nut pounded and mixed with eliminatingguinea worm. Bhallaataka oil, mixed with vidanga(Embelia ribes), was also used. (Ashtaanga Hridaya,Gadanigraha, Siddha-bheshaja-manimaala). Juices ofthe pericarp and the oil of Bhallaataka are powerfulescharotics; used in Indian medicine in small doses(0.03-0.06 cc diluted with clarified butter, cream orhoney ten times its volume). The oil of Bhallaataka,mitigated with butter, or mustard oil in which the fruitsof Bhallaataka are fried, is fried, is used internally.Ripe fruits, boiled with a solution of cow-dung, areused internally. Nuts are used only after curing undermedical supervision.
SA as a constituent in drugs : Ayurvedicpreparations with Bhallaataka as one of theingredients are Narasimha Ghrita (AshtaangaHridaya), Bhallataka Vati (Bhaishaya Ratnaavali) areused as blood purifiers and haematinic tonics;Kalaanka kshara (Ashtaanga Hridaya) forgastrointestinal disorder; and sanjivani vati(Shaarangadhava Samhitaa) for fevers.Bhallaataka enters into many formulations of the southGuggulu-tikta Ghritam, Nimbaamritaasavam,Naarsimha-Rasaayanam, Varnaadi Kashayam,Mahaaraaja-Prasaami Tailam. In Unani medicine,majoon-e-Asal-e-Balaadur is prescribed forneurasthenia; Majoon-e-Balaadur for dementia,amnesia; Raughan-e-Balaadur externally in paralysis,hemiplegia, Bells palsy. Angaruya-e-Kabir is alsoprescribed for neurological affection
Therapeutic Activity: A variety of nut extractpreparations from this source are effective againstmany diseases, viz. arthritis, tumours, infections etc.and non-toxic even at high dose of 2000 mg/kg.The detailed exact pharmacology of activity is yet toclear, although many studies have been done tounderstand and prove the mechanism of thepharmacological action of Semecarpus anacardium.
Anti-Cancer Activity: In traditional medicine, thenut is highly valued for the treatment of tumours andmalignant growth. Studies have been also done inproving the anticancer and hepatoprotective activityof Semecarpus anacardiumnut milk extract againstaflatoxin B1(AFB1)- induced hepatocarcinoma in ratsand establishing its protective role on deranged cellmembrane in AFB1induced hepatocarcinoma.The biochemical basis of anticarcinogenic potencyof Semecarpus anacardium nut was studied usinghepatocellular carcinoma as cancer model in rats. Extensive analysis to study its effect againstbiochemical abnormalities during cancer shows thatthe drug modulates the abnormalities of all biochemicalpathways including carbohydrate, lipid, cytochromeP-450 mediated microsomal drug metabolism, cancermarkers and membrane proteins during cancerprogression. Recent studies carried out on anAyurveda marking nut preparation have also shownpromising results in the treatment of cancers of theoesophagus, urinary bladder, liver and leukemia.The dramatic reduction in alpha-feroprotein level, aspecific marker of hepatocellular carcinoma ,and the histopathological studies had confirmedanticancer efficacy of the drug
Anti-inflammatory Activity: Semecarpusanacardium has been shown to possess antiinflammatoryactivity . Phytochemical studiesof the milk extract have shown flavonoids, phenolsand carbohydrates among its contents and the drugwas found to be effective in different inflammatoryconditions. Pillai reported the presence ofphenolic compounds like semicarpol and bhilawanolin the nuts found to inhibit acute tuberculin reaction insensitized rats and also the primary phase of adjuvantarthritis. In rheumatoid arthritis, pharmacologicalactivities have been attributed to some flavonoidspresents in the drug, particularly those related to theiranti-inflammatory properties. The probablemechanism of action of anti-inflammatory effect isdue to inhibition of the release of early mediators(histamine and serotonin) in first phase and in phaseby inhibitions of cyclo-oxygenase. Further, it alsoinhibitsmonocyte infiltration andfibroblast proliferation. The drug also shows effect immunomodularyeffect during inflammation. The drug shows effecton plaque forming cells (PFC) and antibody titre inarthritis. The increase in both plaque formingcells and antibody titre found in arthritic animals were significantly (p < 0.005) reverted back onadministration of the drug Semecarpus anacardium.NOis a highly fat soluble free radicalswhich is greatlyamplified amplified during inflammation.Semecarpus anacardium have shown remarkablereduction in nitrate/nitrite level,which can be attributedto the antioxidant property.TNF-á is a pleiotropiccytokine; it facilitates inflammatory cell infiltration bypromoting the adhesion of neutrophills andlymphocytes to endothelial cells. Semecarpusanacardium blocks the TNF- á thus severity ofinflammation is reduced.
Neuroprotective Activity: Semecarpusanacardiumis shown to be neuroprotective especiallyto the hippocampal region in stress-inducedneurodegenereation like Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Dysfunction of cholinergicneurotransmission in the brain contributes to the salient cognitive decline in AD. Loss of cholinergiccells, particularly in the basal forebrain isaccompanied by the loss of neurotransmitterAch.Oneof the most accepted strategies in AD treatment isthe use of cholinesterase (AchE) inhibitors. TheSemecarpus anacardium is effective in prolongingthehalf-life of acetylcholine through inhibition ofAchE.Hence Semecarpus anacardium known to be usefulin treating cognitive decline, improving memory orrelated CNS activity
Reproductive Function (Antispermatogenic effect):Semecarpus anacardium extract feeding causedantispermatogenic effect evidenced by reduction innumbers of spermatogenic cells and spermatozoa.Reduction in spermdensity in cauda epididymidesmaybe due to changes in the androgen metabolism. Theprincipal cells of epididymis synthesize proteins,whichhave important role in maturation of spermatozoa.Alterations in the secretion and function of theseproteins impaired sperm maturation. Semecarpusanacardium fruit extract feeding caused impairmentof Leydig cell function, which was evidenced byreduced Leydig cell area and nuclear dimensions andfewer number of mature Leydig cells. The atrophicstate of Leydig cells in the testes of treated animalsmay be due to declined LH secretion.Differentiationof primordial germ cells into spermatogonia andsubsequent appearance of spermatogenic cycle areunder the control of gonadotropin and testosterone,such control being possiblymediated by Sertoli cells,which regulate cell cycle kinetics and influence bothspermatogonia and preleptotene spermatocytes. Thereduction in number of secondary spermatocytes andspermatids reflected non-availability of ABP fromSertoli cells. ABP is required to maintain intratesticularandrogen concentration and transformationof advance stages of germ cells. Meiotic and postmeioticgermcells were highly sensitive to androgenconcentration and the alteration in androgen level intestesmay affect the transformation of spermatocytesto spermatids. The blood parameters remainedwithinthe normal range after Seme-carpus anacardiumadministration indicating non-toxic nature of theplant
Antiatherogenic effect: The imbalance between theprooxidants and antioxidants is the main cause ofdevelopment of atherosclerosis. To prevent suchcondition, antioxidant therapy is beneficial Semecarpus anacardium shows such antioxidantproperty. It has capacity to scavenge the superoxideand hydroxyl radicals at low concentrations. Theprocess of atherogenesis is initiated by peroxidationof lipids in low-density lipoproteins, was also foundinhibited by Semecarpus anacardium .It is possible that the beneficial antiatherogenic effectmay be related to its antioxidant, anticoagulant,hypolipidaemic, platelet antiaggregation andlipoproteinlipase releasing properties. The mechanism ofhypotriglyceridaemic effect has also been shown tobe partlydue to stimulation of lipoprotein lipase activity.
Hypoglycemic and antiglycemic effect: The effectof ethanolic extract of dried nuts of Semecarpusanacardiumon blood glucosewas investigated in bothnormal (hypoglycemic) and streptozotocin and alloxaninduceddiabetic (antihyperglycemic) rats. The bloodglucose levels were measured at 0, 1, 2 and 3 hoursafter the treatment. The ethanolic extract of S.anacardium (100 mg/kg) reduced the blood glucoseof normal rat from 84 +/- 1.4 to 67 +/- 1.7 mg/dl, 3hours after oral administration of the extract (P< 0.05).It also significantly lowered blood glucose level inalloxan induced diabetic rat from 325 +/- 2.2 to 144+/- 1.4mg/dl, 3 hours after oral administration of theextract (P < 0.05). The antihyperglycemic activity ofS. anacardium was compared with tolbutamide, anoral hypoglycemic agent. The exact mechanism isyet to clear but the flavonoid containing constituentssuppose to decrease the blood glucose level
Fungi static activity: Alcoholic extract of dry nutsof S. anacardiumshowed dose dependent antifungalactivity in vitro against Aspergillus fumigatus andCandida albicans. At 400-mg/ml concentrations,growth of both the fungiwas inhibited and considerablereduction in size of cells and hyphae was observed.Sporulation also decreased. The flavonoid present inS. anacardium shows antifungal activity In alternativemedicine,medicinal plant preparations have found widespreaduse particularly in the case of diseases not amenableto treatment by modern methods. Chemical andphytochemical analyses of Semecarpus anacardiumnut reveal the presence of biflavonoids, phenoliccompounds, bhilawanols,minerals, vitamins and aminoacids.Avariety of nut extract preparations from thissource are effective against variety of diseases, andnon-toxic even at high dose of 2000 mg/kg. Howeverunderstanding of the mechanism of thepharmacological action of S. anacardium nut can begreatly aided by the isolation of its active principlefrom the nut and determination of the structurefunctionrelationship.Also, the potent curative effectsof S. anacardiumnut extract against human ailmentsneed to be verified by controlled clinical studies.

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Genus: Ficus
Species: F. religiosa
Ficus Religiosa is a large, fast growing deciduous tree. It has a heart shaped leaves. It is a medium size tree and has a large crown with the wonderful wide spreading branches. It shed its leaves in the month of March and April. The fruits of the Peepal are hidden with the figs. The figs are ripening in the month of May. The figs which contain the flowers grow in pairs just below the leaves and look like the berries. Its bark is light gray and peels in patches. Its fruit is purple in colour. It is one of the longest living trees.
The Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) or Bo-Tree is a species of banyan fig native to India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, southwest China and Indochina.It is also known as “PEEPAL” in Hindi language. It belong to the “MORACEAE” family and it’s Botanical Name is “FICUS RELIGIOSA”. It is a large dry season-deciduous or semi-evergreen tree up to 30 m tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 3 m. The leaves are cordate in shape with a distinctive extended tip; they are 10–17 cm long and 8–12 cm broad, with a 6–10 cm petiole. The fruit is a small fig 1-1.5 cm diameter, green ripening purple. The Bodhi tree and the Sri Maha Bodhi propagated from it are famous specimens of Sacred Fig. The known planting date of the latter, 288 BC, gives it the oldest verified age for any angiosperm plant. This plant is considered sacred by the followers of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, and hence the name ‘Sacred Fig’ was given to it. Siddhartha Gautama is said to have been sitting underneath a Bo-Tree when he was enlightened (Bodhi), or “awakened” (Buddha). Thus, the Bo-Tree is well-known symbol for happiness, prosperity, longevity and good luck. Today in India, Hindu sadhus still meditate below this tree, and in Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia, the tree’s massive trunk is often the site of Buddhist and animist shrines. The Hindus do pradakshina (circumambulation) around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting “Vriksha Rajaya Namah” meaning salutation to the king of trees.
Medicinal Uses
The bark is cooling and astringent and is useful in inflammations and glandular swellings of neck. Root bark is good for stomatitis, clean ulcers and it is astringent in leucorrhoea and promotes granulations. According to Unani system of medicine, root, bark is aphrodisiac and also good for lumbago. Roots are said to be good for gout. The roots are chewed to prevent gum disease. The fruit is laxative, promotes digestion, aphrodisiac and checks vomiting. Ripe fruits are alexipharmic (an antidote or defensive remedy against poison, venom or infection), are good for foul taste, thirst and heart disease. The powdered fruit is taken for asthma. The seeds are cooling, laxative and refrigerant. Seeds are useful in urinary troubles. The leaves alone are used to treat constipation. The leaves and young shoots together are purgative (strong laxative). An infusion or decoction of the bark is used with some honey for the treatment of gonorrhoea, ulcers, skin diseases and scabies. Its power bark has been used to heal the wounds for years.

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Order: Sapindales
Family: Meliaceae
Genus: Azadirachta
Species: A. indica
Neem is a fast-growing tree that can reach a height of 15–20 m (about 50–65 feet), rarely to 35–40 m (115–131 feet). It is evergreen, but in severe drought it may shed most or nearly all of its leaves. The branches are wide spread. The fairly dense crown is roundish or oval and may reach the diameter of 15–20 m in old, free-standing specimens.The opposite, pinnate leaves are 20–40 cm (8 to 16 in.) long, with 20 to 31 medium to dark green leaflets about 3–8 cm (1 to 3 in.) long. The terminal leaflet is often missing. The petioles are short.The (white and fragrant) flowers are arranged axillary, normally in more-or-less drooping panicles which are up to 25 cm (10 in.) long. The inflorescences, which branch up to the third degree, bear from 150 to 250 flowers. An individual flower is 5–6 mm long and 8–11 mm wide. Protandrous, bisexual flowers and male flowers exist on the same individual.The fruit is a smooth (glabrous) olive-like drupe which varies in shape from elongate oval to nearly roundish, and when ripe are 1.4-2.8 x 1.0-1.5 cm. The fruit skin (exocarp) is thin and the bitter-sweet pulp (mesocarp) is yellowish-white and very fibrous. The mesocarp is 0.3-0.5 cm thick. The white, hard inner shell (endocarp) of the fruit encloses one, rarely two or three, elongated seeds (kernels) having a brown seed coat.The neem tree is very similar in appearance to the Chinaberry (Melia azedarach), all parts of which are extremely poisonous to mammals, while birds are known to gorge themselves on the berries, the seeds passing harmlessly through their unique digestive systems.

All parts of the tree are said to have medicinal properties (seeds, leaves, flowers and bark) and are used for preparing many different medical preparations.Part of the Neem tree can be used as a spermicideNeem oil is used for preparing cosmetics (soap, neem shampoo – Sunsan herbal, balms and creams, for example Margo soap), and is useful for skin care such as acne treatment, and keeping skin elasticity.

Neem oil has been found to be an effective mosquito repellent.Neem derivatives neutralise nearly 500 pests worldwide, including insects, mites, ticks, and nematodes, by affecting their behaviour and physiology. Neem does not normally kill pests right away, rather it repels them and affects their growth. As neem products are cheap and non-toxic to higher animals and most beneficial insects, they are well-suited for pest control in rural areas.Besides its use in traditional Indian medicine, the neem tree is of great importance for its anti-desertification properties and possibly as a good carbon dioxide sink.Practitioners of traditional Indian medicine recommend that patients suffering from chicken pox sleep on neem leaves.

Neem gum is used as a bulking agent and for the preparation of special purpose food (for diabetics).Aqueous extracts of neem leaves have demonstrated significant antidiabetic potential.Traditionally, slender neem branches have been chewed in order to clean one’s teeth. Neem twigs are still collected and sold in markets for this use, and in India one often sees youngsters in the streets chewing on neem twigs.A decoction prepared from neem roots is ingested to relieve fever in traditional Indian medicine.Neem leaf paste is applied to the skin to treat acne, and in a similar vein is used for measles and chicken pox sufferers.Neem blossoms are used in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka to prepare Ugadi pachhadi. “Bevina hoovina gojju” (a type of curry prepared with neem blossoms) is common in Karnataka throughout the year. Dried blossoms are used when fresh blossoms are not available. In Tamilnadu, a rasam (veppam poo rasam) made with neem blossoms is a culinary speciality.A mixture of neem flowers and bella (jaggery or unrefined brown sugar) is prepared and offered to friends and relatives, symbolic of sweet and bitter events in the upcoming new year.Extract of neem leaves is thought to be helpful as malaria prophylaxis despite the fact that no comprehensive clinical studies are yet available. In several cases, private initiatives in Senegal were successful in preventing malaria.However, major NGOs such as USAID are not supposed to use neem tree extracts unless the medical benefit has been proved with clinical studies. Neem is a key ingredient in Non-Pesticidal Management (NPM), providing a natural alternative to chemical pesticides. Neem seeds are ground into a powder that is soaked overnight in water and sprayed onto the crop. To be effective, it is necessary to spray at least every ten days. Neem does not directly kill insects on the crop. It acts as an anti-feedant, repellent, and egg-laying deterrent, protecting the crop from damage. The insects starve and die within a few days. Neem also suppresses the hatching of pest insects from their eggs. Neem cake is often sold as a fertilizer.Neem is deemed very effective in the treatment of scabies, although only preliminary scientific proof, which still has to be corroborated, exists.It has been recommended for those who are sensitive to permethrin, a known insecticide which can also be an irritant. It is speculated that the scabies mite has yet to become resistant to neem, making it thus far quite effective. There is also anecdotal evidence of its effectiveness in treating infestations of head lice. The oil is also used in sprays against fleas on cats and dogs. The tender shoots and flowers of the neem tree are eaten as a vegetable in India. Neem flowers are very popular for their use in Ugadi Pachhadi (soup-like pickle), which is made on Ugadi day in the South Indian States of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. A souplike dish called Veppampoo Rasam (Tamil) (translated as “neem flower rasam”) made of the flower of neem is prepared in Tamil Nadu. In West Bengal, young neem leaves are fried in oil with tiny pieces of eggplant (brinjal). The dish is called nim begun and is the first item during a Bengali meal that acts as an appetizer. It is eaten with rice.Neem is also used in parts of mainland Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia, Laos (where it is called kadao), Thailand (where it is known as sadao or sdao), Myanmar (where it is known as tamar) and Vietnam. Even lightly cooked, the flavour is quite bitter and thus the food is not enjoyed by all inhabitants of these nations, though it is believed to be good for one’s health. Neem Gum is a rich source of protein.

In Myanmar, young neem leaves and flower buds are boiled with tamarind fruit to soften its bitterness and eaten as a vegetable. Pickled neem leaves are also eaten with tomato and fish paste sauce in Myanmar. Neem leaf or bark is considered an effective pitta pacifier due to its bitter taste. Hence, it is traditionally recommended during early summer in Ayurveda (that is, the month of Chaitra as per the Hindu Calendar which usually falls in the month of March – April), and during Gudi Padva, which is the New Year in the state of Maharashtra, the ancient practice of drinking a small quantity of neem juice or paste on that day, before starting festivities, is found. As in many Hindu festivals and their association with some food to avoid negative side-effects of the season or change of seasons, neem juice is associated with Gudi Padva to remind people to use it during that particular month or season to pacify summer pitta.

In Tamilnadu during the summer months of April to June, the Mariamman temple festival is a thousand year old tradition. The Neem leaves and flowers are the most important part of the Mariamman festival. The goddess Mariamman statue will be garlanded with Neem leaves and flowers. During most occasions of celebrations and weddings the people of Tamilnadu adorn their surroundings with the Neem leaves and flowers as a form of decoration and also to ward off evil spirits and infections.